Media Psychology and Intercultural Communication: The Social Representations of Vietnam on Turkish Newspapers

Media Psychology and Intercultural Communication: 

The Social Representations of Vietnam on Turkish Newspapers

Ulaş Başar Gezgin

Abstract

With a more open foreign policy implemented, Vietnam has been said to be integrated to the world. As a distant result of đổi mới policy, the country has been represented internationally at higher levels and thus Vietnamese had more frequently encountered with other people. Vietnam which used to be a symbol of war and peace turns out to be a vivacious nation prioritizing economic interests. How is this turn reverberated among other countries? One of the ways to answer this is by focusing on how media represents Vietnam. In that sense, such a study falls in the intersection of media psychology and intercultural communication, and involves social representations as a concept linked with the notion of social cognition. That is why, in this chapter, how Vietnam has been represented on Turkish newspapers since 1990s are reviewed and discussed. The news items clearly show the transformation from the representation of wartime Vietnam to post-đổi-mới Vietnam. The interest for Vietnam on Hürriyet which is one of the most read Turkish dailies doubles by 2003 and peaks by 2008. This popularity is also related to the portrayal of the Vietnam War veterans of America. In that sense, the gloomy past still haunts the new image of Vietnam. Other than this, it has been observed that tourism and commerce are more frequently associated with Vietnam on Turkish newspapers. In most of the cases, the intercultural contact is secondary (not face-to-face and not direct), but the representations of Vietnamese among Turkish people are mostly positive and sympathetic. To conclude, this chapter focuses on social representations of Vietnamese on Turkish newspapers to check whether the transformation of Vietnamese self-image is consistent with the image from other’s perspective, within a framework in the intersection of media psychology and intercultural communication.

Keywords: Media psychology, intercultural communication, Vietnamese, post-đổi-mới, and social representations     

1. Introduction: Vietnam on Turkish Newspapers during Vietnam-American War and Onwards

A major shift in representations of Vietnam has been observed especially after đổi mới, although ‘Vietnam War’ and ‘Vietnam Protests’ as metonymic depictions of Vietnam persist as a response to Turkish political agenda such as the Kurdish question and the Gezi Park Protests.  It is not surprising to see that Vietnam on Turkish newspapers in 1960s and 1970s was associated with war, diplomacy and peace processes. Chemical warfare in Vietnam (Göral, 1971); massacres against ethnic Vietnamese civilians in Cambodia in 1970 (Kohen, 1970; Milliyet, 1970a; 1970b); the return of American soldiers and American withdrawal from Vietnam in 1973 (Milliyet, 1973a); ceasefire negotiations (Milliyet, 1973b; 1973d); the peace process (Cem, 1972; Milliyet, 1972a; 1973c); the ‘liberation’ of Saigon, and the end of Vietnam-American War (Milliyet, 1975a); the timeline of the 30-year-long war (Milliyet, 1975c) and post-war diplomacy and reconstruction (Milliyet, 1975b; 1979c); deterioration of the diplomatic relations between Vietnam and China (Milliyet, 1978); the consequent Chinese invasion in 1979 which is conceived as a result of Sino-Soviet conflict (Kohen, 1979; Milliyet, 1979a), and negotiations between Vietnam and China (1979b); and Vietnamese withdrawal from Cambodia (Milliyet, 1988)  were the most common topics that appeared on Turkish newspapers.

The coverage was not only about publishing what foreign news agencies released about the conflicts. It also involved interviews with the leading Turkish professors about Vietnam War and the position that Turkey should take (Milliyet, 1972b; 1972c), a detailed commentary by a retired Turkish general about Sino-Vietnamese conflict (Sükan, 1979), very detailed analyses of Vietnam as the swamp for America and how to build the peace process by the dean of the Ankara University Faculty of Political Sciences (Armaoğlu, 1966a; 1966b). Likewise, Turkish ex-minister of foreign affairs discusses Vietnam War and the conflicts between super-powers in a long piece (Aras, 1968); and recommendations to solve ‘the Vietnam crisis’ peacefully (İpekçi, 1967) are published as well. A travelogue of wartime Saigon portraying the prevalence of commercial sex trade and black market (Kılıç, 1970); and an earlier one which is superficial and negative about Saigonese (Barut, 1963) can be noted here as well. Although most of the news texts and columns are positive about Vietnam, invasion of Cambodia had changed the tone whereby drawing an analogy between Vietnam and US in the case of Vietnam’s intervention to Cambodia and view Cambodia as Vietnam’s swamp (Kohen, 1985) could also appear. Contrary to these, after đổi-mới, news about Vietnamese-British trade (Milliyet, 1996a); about Vietnamese-American diplomatic normalization and trade talks (Çongar, 2000) and superficial travelogues (Milliyet, 1996b) appeared on Turkish newspapers.

2. Vietnam on Turkish Newspapers in 2013

In order to delineate how Vietnam is represented on Turkish newspapers, Hürriyet which is one of the top-read newspapers and one of the most globalized as a media company has been content-analyzed for news in 2013. The following are the most common themes: Economic and commercial relations between Turkey and Vietnam; Vietnam War, Vietnam War Protests and Vietnam Syndrome; tourism; and Vietnam cuisine. In this section, news texts and columns about these themes are presented and discussed.

2.1. Economic and Commercial Relations between Turkey and Vietnam

Most of the news texts involve economic and commercial relations between Turkey and Vietnam. In various news entries, Vietnam is considered as one of the countries in the list of fast-growth economies (Hürriyet, 2013f); as one of the enterpreneurial countries (Hürriyet, 2013af); as a cheaper alternative to China for plastics production (Levent, 2013); as a country which is advancing in the software industry (Dikmen, 2013); as one of the countries to send electronic junk for recycling (Hürriyet, 2013c); as one of the few countries where world-famous Turkish olive oil has not been exported (Omur, 2013); and as one of the countries where Turkish series are broadcasted (Hürriyet, 2013m). 

Some of the topics involving Vietnamese economy and trade are increase in the prices of the black pepper exported from Vietnam (Hürriyet, 2013r; 2013s); electronics, electronic car batteries and steel trade between Turkey and various countries including Vietnam (Hürriyet, 2013l; 2013v; Hürriyet, 2013ac); the Turkish cosmetics industry entering Vietnam and Asia in general (Kırbaşlı, 2013); Turkish fresh fruit companies selling to ‘Far Eastern’ markets including Vietnam (Hürriyet, 2013t); some others that are trying to sell to those markets and Vietnam as well (Hürriyet, 2013h); and business visits to Vietnam by Turkish businessman/woman (Munyar, 2013; Özdemir, 2013).

Some other trade news about Vietnam is the following: A Turkish vodka firm states that they sold 7,000 liters of vodka to Vietnam (Hürriyet, 2013ak). A Turkish businessman sells cashew nuts worldwide and provides information about global production: He lists Africa, India, Brazil and Vietnam as top producers (Güler, 2013a). A Turkish-British partnership company that is specialized in bank customer experiences state that they receive business offers from various banks including Vietnamese ones (Güler, 2013b). A Turkish lighting company states that Vietnamese military is among their customers (Benmayor, 2013), and a Turkish plastic company lists Vietnam as one of its 55 new national markets (Hürriyet Ege, 2013).

Finally, an emerging theme is the arms market and nuclear energy: Turkey and Vietnam are considered as two countries in the group of the new nuclear power developers recently (Erdil, 2013; Hürriyet, 2013z); and as the two countries among those which have arms market under development according to Israel’s National Defense (Hürriyet, 2013y).

2.2. Vietnam War, Vietnam War Protests and Vietnam Syndrome

Although Turkish people did not join Vietnam-American War, most of the associations about Vietnam are about the war and ‘courageous tiny little people’ resisting American occupation. These associations had been bolstered by Vietnam War movies of Hollywood and recently new Vietnamese productions such as ‘The Rebel’ (Dòng Máu Anh Hùng, 2007) and Vietnam War protests by student movements globally as well as locally and by the Turkish socialist movement.  The term ‘Vietnam War’ is a compound word not only in English, but also in Turkish. For many in Turkey, Vietnam is not a country, but a war (cf. Gezgin, 2009a).

While Vietnam appeared on Turkish newspapers with the war news in the past, especially by 1990s onwards, it is featured –although shallowly- in some of the discussions of ‘the Kurdish problem’ in Turkey by the terms ‘Vietnam War’, ‘Vietnam War Protests’ and ‘Vietnam Syndrome’. Syrian conflict has been another case to discuss in relation with Vietnam War. Furthermore, Gezi Park protests have been another channel where the notion of ‘Vientam syndrome’ has been pronounced. The topics under this category are the following: Comparison of Turkey’s handling of ‘the Kurdish Problem’ with Vietnam War and of the symptoms of the Turkish soldiers with the ‘Vietnam syndrome’ (Doğan, 2013a); a humorous comparison of Gezi Park Protests and Vietnam War Protests (Öncel, 2013); a brief comparison of the music springing from Gezi Park Protests and Woodstock Festival that is said “to end Vietnam War” (Türsen, 2013); a discussion of Gezi Park Protests in relation with ‘Vietnam Syndrome’ (Tuna, 2013); the mention of Vietnam War in the context of the 2013 Turkish-Kurdish peace process (Kızılkaya, 2013); mention of Dien Bien Phu in the biography of Boris Vian, as he had composed a song in support of Vietnam (‘Le Deserteur’) (Hürriyet Keyif, 2013); the return of the skeletal remains of the amputated arm of a Vietnamese war veteran, Nguyễn Quang Hùng by an American doctor, Sam Axelrad (Hürriyet, 2013aa); the story of Hồ Văn Thanh and his son who had been hiding in the jungle due to Vietnam War until recently (Hürriyet, 2013x); and before all, the portrayal of the life and funeral of the late general Võ Nguyên Giáp (Elveren, 2013; Hürriyet, 2013n; 2013p).  

Bayer (2013a) reminds that as in the example of Vietnam War times in Turkey where the Middle East Technical University students had overturned and burned the car of the American ambassador which was considered to be responsible for the massacres in Vietnam, students continue to resist against the new Turkish authoritarian regime. Doğan (2013c) briefly compares American propaganda lies in Vietnam War with those in the ongoing war in Syria; while Özdil (2013) with what happened in Iraq; and an interview with the American filmmaker Oliver Stone published on Hürriyet revolves on the same topic (Atalay, 2013). Syria as considered to be 2nd Vietnam for U.S., according to the Syrian president (Hürriyet, 2013w; Hürriyet Planet, 2013b) and an Iranian commander (Hürriyet Planet, 2013a) in separate occasions, and the mention of the former Russian (ex-Soviet) military base in Central Vietnam (Cam Ranh) -that is no longer operating- in discussions of the Syrian conflict (Hacıoğlu, 2013) are the other topics under this category.

2.3. Tourism

Vietnam is mentioned as one of the countries to rise in international tourism industry (Hürriyet, 2013ag). Another news text reports that the demand for Vietnam, Cambodia and Thailand trips has increased in Turkey (Hürriyet, 2013ah).  Furthermore, Vietnam and Thailand are stated as the new vacation destination for Turkish celebrities and top businessmen (Kimsesizcan, 2013a; 2013b; 2013c).

An increasing number of travel diaries about Vietnam by Turkish travelers is another indicator of the rising popularity of Vietnam. Travelogues on Hạ Long Bay (Seyahat Mektupları, 2013) on Mekong Delta (Hürriyet, 2013aj), on Tây Ninh and Cao Đài Temple (Eriş, 2013) and the mention of Hạ Long Bay in a travelers’ interview (Yedig, 2013) can be listed under this category.

2.4. Vietnamese Cuisine

           

An increasing number of presentations on Vietnamese cuisine by gourmet Turkish columnists has been observed: Nước mắm (Vietnamese fish sauce) (Yaşin, 2013) and oyster with Vietnamese sauce (Hürriyet, 2013e) are mentioned. A Turkish columnist states that Chinese, Japanese, Vietnamese and Thai dishes are similar, also there are distinctive properties (Soysal, 2013); which can be interpreted as a shallow level of exposure to Vietnamese food by Turkish people. The presentation of a new Vietnamese restaurant that operates in Istanbul (Arman, 2013; Baştürk, 2013) is another topic under this category. It is interesting to see that this Vietnamese restaurant is run by a Turkish-Kiwi couple. The New Zealander owner had cuisine training in Vietnam (Arman, 2013).

2.5. Others

Miscellaneous topics appear under this category: In a news piece about the death penalty in Vietnam, it is reported that execution by shooting is stopped by 2011 as the shooters are traumatized; instead, lethal injection is used and Vietnam plans to produce its own domestic lethal injection. According to the news, Vietnam cannot execute 532 convicts, as the number of injections is not sufficient, since EU companies stopped supplying them to Vietnam (Hürriyet, 2013al).

           

Another source of mediated knowledge about Vietnam for Turks is Germany where more than two million Turkish people reside (European Commission, 2002). Vietnam as the origin of the former Vice-Chancellor of Germany (i.e. Philipp Rösler) (Çekirge, 2013a; 2013b; Hürriyet, 2013a); and the horrible murder of a Vietnamese youngster by a Turkish-German mob in Germany (Hürriyet, 2013ad; Hürriyet Planet, 2013c) are the topics under this category. 

A short comparison of Turkey and Vietnam in terms of journalists in prison and related issues about journalists (Albayrak, 2013; Canikligil, 2013b; 2013d; Hürriyet, 2013b); mention of one-party character of Vietnam (Doğan, 2013b); and the ambassadorial reception of Vietnamese Independence Day in Turkey (Hürriyet, 2013u) are the other news that are more political. 

Another subcategory of news involve natural and/or man-made disasters: Malaria outbreaks and cases in Vietnam and Asia in general (Erşan, 2013; Hürriyet, 2013j); natural disasters in Vietnam (Hürriyet, 2013g; 2013k) and a brief mention of John Kerry’s visit to Vietnam after Haiyan Typhoon (Hürriyet, 2013 d); and the news about the explosion at a fireworks factory in Vietnam (Hürriyet, 2013o) are the examples for this subcategory. Some others can be added under this category: Turkey and Vietnam are listed as two of the top ten countries in the number of traffic accidents globally (Hürriyet Planet, 2013d) and a Turkish ship is reported to crash with a Vietnamese one in Singapore Strait (Hürriyet, 2013ai).

Under the educational subcategory, Vietnam is listed as one of the top ten countries which send students to US (Hürriyet, 2013i), as one of the countries that send students to Turkish universities (Hürriyet, 2013ae), and as one of the countries where a Turkish Gülen Movement school has been opened (Bayer, 2013b). Finally, two news pieces present Vietnamese results under the ‘Far Eastern’ countries list for OECD’s PISA test,  whereby Vietnam was shown to score better than Turkey (Canikligil, 2013a; Yücel, 2013).

An article about the first Turkish woman travel photographer who also documented Vietnam War (Arseven, 2013); Canikligil (2013c)’s quotation from a report stating that Vietnam is among the top bug-eating countries; and a piece informing that a new Turkish TV show runs in Vietnam, Cambodia and Thailand (Hürriyet, 2013ab; Vural, 2013) are other news that can be classified under this category. 

3. Discussion and Future Suggestions

Considering the news texts and columns that appeared about Vietnam on Turkish newspapers from the war era onwards, it can be observed that the past news involved very detailed Vietnam analysis, unlike the recent shallow ones; as Vietnam was on the global agenda and such texts could easily catch a large group of audience due to the pervasiveness of the student movements in Turkey. In the post-đổi mới era, news about Vietnam on Turkish newspapers mostly involved non-war issues such as economy, trade, tourism, cuisine etc., although war themes linger due to the Kurdish conflict, Syrian conflict, Gezi Park protests and news about American Vietnam War veterans. The tenor is mostly positive. Yet stereotypes and generalizations can still be powerful as in the case of a columnist stating that Vietnamese are eating not only dogs but cats (Uluç, 2013). Overall, more than 200 news pieces and columns on average appear on Hürriyet annually which mentions ‘Vietnam’ in one way or another; however, as stated above, they are mostly shallow. Another evidence for this observation comes from the fact that only 15 to 20 news pieces or columns mention ‘Vietnamese’ out 200 news texts and columns on ‘Vietnam’ on average  and most of them are superficial. Nevertheless, it is clear that the relationship between Vietnamese and Turkish people will ascend to higher levels as the trade, tourism and exposure to Vietnamese dishes will develop. In a pictured catalogue published by Trade Office of Vietnam Embassy in Turkey (2011), the following are listed and presented as potential products for Turkish-Vietnamese trade: Textile and garment products; footwear products; suitcase bags, backpack, umbrellas; agricultural products; wood and allied products (sic); plastic and allied products (sic); handicraft products; rubber and allied products (sic); electronic products and components; and seafood products. Obviously, these have potentials for international trade. On the other hand, the case is far from an ideal situation of cultural encounters (which may involve food courts and restaurants, fairs, tourism, Vietnamese living in Turkey and Turkish living in Vietnam etc. (cf. Gezgin, in press b)), as average people in Turkey and in Vietnam rarely have any chance to meet with each other, by the way of cultural or artistic fairs, cuisine, tourism etc.; and their representations of each are mostly shaped by news and films on media (and recently, Turkish series (Hürriyet, 2013m)). The news sources about Vietnam on Turkish newspapers are exclusively Atlantic ones (i.e. US and EU) which points to the potential of Turks residing in Vietnam and vice versa to get involved in citizen journalism via social media which acts as a vivacious platform for a better way of intercultural understanding and maintaining relationships with Turkish and Vietnamese diasporas.

Vietnamese embassy adding to the publication efforts to boost Turkish-Vietnamese relations (e.g. Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism, 2008; Trade Office of Vietnam Embassy in Turkey, 2011; Vietnam Trade Office in Turkey, 2013) can organize food fairs and cultural events, and form an archive of books,  magazines and films about Vietnam in Turkish language. A film festival featuring selected films and documentaries about Vietnam War and the recent Vietnamese film industry could be conducive to strengthen the intercultural ties between Vietnamese and Turkish. Ditto for Turkish Embassy in Vietnam. Thus, Turkish sympathy for Vietnamese can be harnessed for a higher level of intercultural understanding and friendship if the recommended measures could be undertaken.

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Source:  Gezgin, U.B. (2017). Connecting Social Science Research with Human Communication Practices: Politics, Education and Psychology of Social Media, Media and Culture.

CONNECTING SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH WITH HUMAN COMMUNICATION PRACTICES: POLITICS, EDUCATION AND PSYCHOLOGY OF SOCIAL MEDIA, MEDIA AND CULTURE Prof.Dr. Ulaş Başar Gezgin SOCIAL MEDIA, MEDIA AND POLITICS 1. Omnipresent and Omnipotent Authoritarianism: Authoritarian Media vs. Social Media? 2. Istanbul Mobil’ized: Mobile Phones’ Contribution to Political Participation and Activism in Istanbul Gezi Park Protests and Onwards. 3. The Gezi Park Protest and #resistgezi: A Chronicle of Tweeting the Protests.  4. Peace Journalism: Urgently and Desperately Needed in Post-Election Turkey. SOCIAL MEDIA AND EDUCATION 5. Critical Thinking Skills on Social Media: A Blooming Season Or A Period Of Decline?   6. Social media, blended learning and constructivism: A jigsaw completed by the uses and gratifications theory? 7. Educational uses of social media and problem-based learning. PSYCHOLOGY, MEDIA AND SOCIAL MEDIA 8. The future of the new media: The mobile generation and interpersonal communication. 9. “Keep in E-Touch”: Personality and Facebook use (with Ng) 10. Of Kate Moss & Marilyn Monroe: Body Dissatisfaction and its Relation to Media (with Dev) CULTURAL AND INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION 11. Media psychology and intercultural communication: The social representations of Vietnam on Turkish newspapers. 12. Regional Journalism in Southeast Asia and ASEAN Identity in Making: Asia News Network as a Case for International and Intercultural Communication. 13. Uses of social media to promote ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community in Vietnam. Bio